ETR&D

This study explores the interactive characteristics of learning objects used in online courses and design intent of instructional designers. The study adopts the "Window of Interaction" (WoI) framework, drawnfrom Human–Computer Interaction (HCI), to critically examine the interactive characteristics of learning objects in the context of the designers’ intent and learning goals. This study provides research-based evidence to document: (1) the interactive characteristics of learning objects used in online courses; (2) designers’ intent and its manifestation in the learning objects they have designed; and (3) the connection between learning goals and the interactive characteristics of learning objects. The application of the WoI framework allowed us to identify the link between the interactive features of the design objects and the design intent guided by specific learning goals. With more advanced technologies, such as various AI-driven tools, the analysis of interactive features of technologies and learning objects becomes critical for designing more intentional learning experiences.

Computational Thinking (CT) capabilities are crucial for students’ future development. As a pivotal mode of thought, CT extends beyond mere programming skills, representing a methodology and strategy for problem-solving that empowers students to address complex challenges across diverse domains. In this context, this study aims to investigate the impact of a teaching strategy combining Project-Based Learning with Pair Programming Instructional Strategy (PBL-PPIS) on high school students’ CT capabilities and metacognitive skills. Conducted in a public high school in H City, Central China, this quasi-experimental design spanned one academic term and involved 90 first-year high school students aged 14 to 16. These students were divided into an experimental group and a control group, with the former utilizing the PBL-PPIS strategy and the latter adhering to conventional Project-Based Learning methods (PBL). To comprehensively assess the impact, this study utilized specialized scales for Computational Thinking and metacognitive abilities, and employed detailed analyses through paired sample t-tests and univariate ANCOVA. Through pre- and post-experiment surveys, we analyzed and compared the performance differences in CT and metacognitive skills between the two groups. The findings indicate significant enhancements in the experimental group across the five core competencies of Computational Thinking (Creativity, Algorithmic Thinking, Cooperativity, Critical Thinking, Problem Solving) and in their metacognitive abilities (planning, monitoring, evaluating). These results validate the effectiveness of the PBL-PPIS strategy in integrating the advantages of project-based learning and pair programming, underscoring its significant role in enhancing students’ CT and metacognitive abilities. This study contributes novel insights to the field of educational practice, offering fresh inspiration and direction for educators in designing and implementing programming education strategies.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects and predictive power of the Diagnostic Assessment and Achievement of College Skills (DAACS) on student success. DAACS is an open-source diagnostic assessment tool designed to measure newly enrolled college students’ reading, writing, mathematics, and self-regulated learning skills, and to provide individualized feedback and learning resources that students can use to become better prepared for college. A randomized control trial was performed at two online colleges (n = 23,467) to test the effects of DAACS on credit acquisition and retention. The results indicate an overall null effect of treatment, but post hoc analyses reveal two important findings: 1) Students who not only received the assessment results but also accessed the feedback were significantly more likely to earn credits and be retained for a second term than students who only accessed the assessment results; 2) some students who only accessed the assessment results without reading the feedback, particularly those with low scores on the assessments, low self-efficacy, or high test anxiety, had worse outcomes than the control group. We speculate that feedback mitigates the potentially negative effects of testing on student success. In addition, an examination of the predictive power of DAACS indicated that DAACS data significantly strengthen predictions of academic outcomes.

The education sector is undergoing a rapid digital transformation, accelerated by the challenges posed by COVID-19. The pandemic has disrupted traditional teaching methods that prompt teachers to explore new approaches, such as the use of serious games, to keep learners engaged and learning. Serious games have proved to be an effective solution for bridging the gaps in distance learning and meeting the expectations of the new generation of learners. However, there are still obstacles to their adoption and implementation, particularly with teachers who have difficulty selecting games that suit the specific needs of their students. This paper presents the results of a study aimed at designing and developing a tool to help teachers better understand serious games, their components, and how they work, in order to integrate them effectively into their teaching practices. For this study, we used an approach that combines the unified version of the adoption and use of technologies (Venkatesh et al., 2003), the Jakob Nielsen System Acceptability Model (Nielsen, 1994b), and the analysis method of structure, interface, and use (Bouroumane et al., 2022). We tested our tool through two studies. One assessed its use in a real context, and the other utilized a questionnaire to evaluate its usefulness, usability, and acceptability. According to 80% of users, this tool is extremely useful for understanding the pedagogical dimensions of serious games, which can significantly and positively impact their adoption in education.

Computer programming is an essential, cross-disciplinary skill relevant to learners beyond merely computer scientists. This paper introduces parallel courseware, a novel approach to courseware design that contributes to adaptable learning in introductory programming education. Adaptability is achieved through the implementation of parallel, aligned courseware versions, designed along key customization dimensions, such as programming language and application domain, resulting in numerous courseware permutations to meet diverse student needs. These versions are delivered through LearnCoding, an online platform that enables seamless switching between permutations while maintaining a consistent structure and layout, thereby supporting personalized learning, facilitating comparative exploration of content, and enhancing skill transfer across contexts. The paper also reports findings from a study conducted over two offerings of a first-year programming course, exploring the impact of the proposed approach on students’ understanding of and interest in the learning material. Results indicate a positive student experience, suggesting promising implications for the design of adaptable courseware and the development of flexible e-learning platforms.

Generalist primary school computer science (CS) teachers are often reluctant to introduce CS activities that go beyond CS unplugged tasks. To address this challenge, we drew from constructive alignment principles to implement a new programming modality for primary school: the handwriting programming language (HPL). HPL brings programming activities closer to existing teaching practices by enabling students to write instructions on paper, take a picture, and have an agent execute them. HPL’s applicability in classrooms was investigated in two stages. First, 49 primary school teachers evaluated two alternative programming modalities—HPL and an equivalent paper-based Tangible Programming Language—using the technology acceptance model (TAM). As teachers preferred HPL, we then conducted a 3-session quasi-experimental study with 143 public school students (aged 9–10) to compare HPL’s acceptance (with the TAM) and learning outcomes (with a validated test) to the established Scratch programming language. The findings indicate that: (i) over 80% of teachers were willing to use HPL to teach CS in class, irrespective of gender or prior experience; (ii) HPL-students exhibited less trial-and-error behaviour than Scratch-students (fewer attempts, more time between attempts); (iii) students perceived HPL as positively as Scratch; (iv) HPL-students learned as much as Scratch-students. In conclusion, HPL is an accessible, accepted, and pedagogically meaningful means of teaching CS that is as efficient as Scratch to teach CS in primary school. HPL’s efficiency and acceptance by teachers and students suggests that handwriting-based programming languages may help shift primary school CS teaching practices, and make CS education more widespread, bringing us closer to CS for all.

The reading ability of hearing-impaired students is essential for their participation in mainstream society. However, previous studies have shown that they may encounter obstacles due to a lack of interest or limitations in reading communication systems. Augmented reality (AR) has been noted to provide immersive learning environments, collaborative assistance, and in-time resources for improving reading experience and motivation. While previous studies have developed mobile reading environments tailored for hearing-impaired students, the incorporation of pedagogical approaches within immersive AR reading environments remains unexplored. Accordingly, this study investigated the effects of immersive AR environments on hearing-impaired students’ reading with a quasi-experiment. Sixty-five hearing-impaired students’ reading achievement, perceptions, and behaviours were analysed with one-way analysis of covariance and lag sequential analysis. The result indicated that the immersive AR learning environment incorporating the DEEP reading strategy (i.e., Developing self-regulated reading, Experimental exploration, Express and creative construction, and Pluralism) improved hearing-impaired students’ reading achievement, perceptions, and behaviours. Students with the immersive AR reading strategy exhibited more interactive-oriented behaviours and high levels of cognitive attainment (e.g., experiential exploration, creative construction, and problem-solving). This study contributed to existing hearing-impaired teaching practices by revealing what essential behaviour teachers should consider and how to design an immersive AR learning environment.

The generalization of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning to immersive virtual reality (IVR) learning contexts has been increasingly examined; for example, there has been an exploration of redundancy effects on science learning using IVR technology. However, studies on how well multimedia principles such as redundancy work in IVR learning with humanities-related content has been limited. This work therefore aimed to explore the redundancy effects of immersive virtual literary reading on students’ humanities learning by evaluating their empathy, cognitive load, and reading comprehension with consideration of the moderating effects of their learning backgrounds. A between-subjects design with two modes of presentation format (auditory narrative only vs. auditory narrative and on-screen text) involved 70 higher education students who were randomly assigned to two groups, with 35 students in each condition. Results showed that the students’ learning background moderated their perceived empathy but not their cognitive load and reading performance when reading redundant virtual information. Redundancy design of instructional content in IVR learning environments was verified as reducing cognitive load. Moreover, reading an immersive virtual literary novel with redundant information design was likely not detrimental to the students’ higher-level reading comprehension performance, but this was not the case for their lower-level reading comprehension.

AI literacy is becoming increasingly popular in education, yet there has been limited focus on reviewing empirical research on AI literacy assessment. The purpose of this study was to synthesize existing empirical studies on AI literacy assessment, with the aim to understand how AI literacy has been assessed and to inform future AI literacy assessment development. This scoping review evaluates and synthesizes 36 studies on AI literacy assessment published between 2019 and 2024, involving assessment tools, forms of assessment, and reliability and validity evidence related to AI literacy assessment. The review proposes four aspects (i.e., knowledge of AI, AI ethics, affect towards AI, and use of AI) for assessing AI literacy. The results showed that (1) most research focused on assessing primary and secondary school students’ AI literacy; (2) most studies used questionnaires, followed by surveys; (3) most studies used computer-based tests, followed by paper-based tests; (4) most studies assessed participants’ AI knowledge, followed by AI ethics; and (5) only a few studies reported evidence of the reliability and effectiveness of their assessments. Based on the reviewed literature, this study develops an AI literacy framework for people of all ages and from all countries. The findings and directions for future research are also discussed.