ETR&D

Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, the flipped classroom, as an innovative teaching model, has garnered widespread attention. However, most previous meta-analyses have focused solely on its effects on learning outcomes within a single domain, and the reported effect sizes have exhibited considerable inconsistency. This study employed a second-order meta-analysis, integrating 50 first-order meta-analyses and yielding 75 effect sizes of the flipped classroom on student learning outcomes. It systematically examined variations in the model’s effectiveness across different types of learning outcomes, disciplines, and instructional contexts. The results showed that the flipped classroom significantly improves students’ academic performance, cognitive ability, and non-cognitive ability. Additionally, the study revealed significant heterogeneity in effect sizes and identified significant differences across disciplines and learning levels. Meta‑regression analysis indicated that the moderating effect of learning level was no longer significant in the multivariate model, whereas discipline remained a significant moderator of the flipped classroom’s effect sizes. The effect sizes for language learning and public health were higher than those for other disciplines, suggesting that discipline may be more fundamental than learning level, and that the differences in effect sizes by learning level may stem from a structural overlap in the distribution of disciplines.

Health education emphasizes the public’s understanding, internalization, and practical application of health-related behaviors. Using primary school students as an example, health education that lacks age-appropriate and engaging instructional design may result in reduced learning motivation within this group. To date, health education has predominantly targeted caregivers, thereby limiting opportunities for primary school students to develop the skills to manage their health independently. Given that primary school students benefit from concrete aids to support logical thinking, this study proposed a robot-assisted multimodal learning model grounded in the ARCS (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction) framework. To evaluate its effectiveness, an experiment related to asthma health education was conducted involving 60 primary school students aged 6 to 12 years from a medical center in northern Taiwan. Participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental group, which adopted the robot-based ARCS (R-ARCS) learning model (n = 30), or the control group, which used the conventional ARCS (C-ARCS) learning model (n = 30). Results indicated that, compared to the C-ARCS learning model, the R-ARCS learning model more effectively enhanced primary school students’ learning achievement and motivation, while also reducing their asthma anxiety. Interview results further revealed that the experimental group experienced increased learning motivation, improved comprehension, and reduced anxiety. The findings provide a valuable reference for designing health education curricula targeting primary school students. Future research is recommended to incorporate parent–child collaborative learning models to optimize curriculum development and further enhance learning effectiveness.