Instructional Science

Second language (L2) learners require feedback on their writing. However, studies on feedback effectiveness in L2 learning have lacked ecological validity: these studies have isolated one variable at a time, but the L2 classroom features complex interactions between variables. Thus, this quasi-experimental study examined the effectiveness of (1) feedback type (focused vs. unfocused) and (2) the supplementation of feedback with instruction in improving the understanding of grammatical countability among L2 English students in Taiwan. College sophomores attending 18-week L2 English courses were divided into four groups, namely, a focused feedback + unfocused feedback + instruction group (Group 1), an unfocused feedback + focused feedback group (Group 2), an unfocused feedback group (Group 3), and a control group (Group 4). The focused feedback and instruction were on grammatical countability. The number of errors in grammatical countability that the students made in their writing was taken as the outcome. According to the two-way analysis of variance results, Groups 1, 2, 3, and 4 performed the best to worst, respectively. These results reveal the following. First, focused feedback on a specific error type should be supplemented with subsequent instruction on that error type to reinforce and clarify the feedback given. Second, unfocused feedback should be supplemented with focused feedback. Third, unfocused feedback has some utility and is better than no feedback. Future studies should investigate other aspects of English usage and have a longer follow-up duration.

This study explores how teaching activities that integrate metaconceptual processes impact 7th-grade students’ understanding of the republic, democracy, and the state of law. Using a case study approach, the research evaluates students’ current knowledge and the effects of metaconceptual teaching. The participants included four students (two girls and two boys) from a diverse public school. The selection was based on various assessments, including the Law-related Conceptual Understanding Test (LRCUT) and the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI), as well as in-class observations and interviews. The teaching methods included poster creation, concept mapping, concept cards, concept cartoons, and group and class discussions, with a focus on metacognitive processes such as awareness, monitoring, and evaluation. Findings indicate that metaconceptual processes enhance students’ understanding, correct alternative conceptions, and make teaching more effective. This study offers insights into the application of metaconceptual teaching for complex concepts, demonstrating that active student participation improves comprehension and relevance to daily life. These results may help shape educational programs and teaching strategies.

Although there is abundant empirical evidence that, separately applied, cognitive load theory and desirable difficulty theory enhance performance, little is known about how these theories can be successfully combined. To address this critical gap, the present study investigated the effects of complexity (constantly high vs. gradually increasing) and desirable difficulty (interleaved vs. blocked) on performance, metacognitive strategy use, and self- and task perception. In total, 132 learners participated in this 2 × 2 factorial intervention study. This study consisted of a main learning session and a posttest two days later. The posttest results showed that confronting learners with complex desirable difficulty tasks was effective in fostering performance. Furthermore, cognitive load was revealed as one of the major reasons for learners’ metacognitive engagement. We discuss the implications of these findings for research, theory, and practice and provide recommendations for future research.

Evidence on which cognitive and dispositional factors jointly predict inquiry performance, overall and by facet, remains limited. Identifying these predictors is key for designing guidance suited to different learners and tasks. Drawing on the Scientific Discovery as Dual Search (SDDS) framework, we examined four cognitive factors - content knowledge, control-of-variables strategy (CVS), functional thinking, and general cognitive ability - together with four dispositional factors - interest in physics, physics self-concept, personality, and task-specific current motivation - and perceived intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load. Data from 232 young adults across six online sessions included assessments of these factors and a far-transfer Cartesian diver task capturing seven inquiry facets. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that cognitive factors explained about 50% of the variance in inquiry performance, with CVS and functional thinking emerging as the strongest predictors. Dispositional factors and cognitive load contributed little, except for self-concept and extraneous load. Cognitive factors also predicted specific inquiry facets: functional thinking, for example, was particularly relevant for reasoning about variable associations (SDDS relation space) based on interpreting data representations (SDDS experiment space). Latent profile analysis identified three learner profiles differing in combinations of cognitive factors, illustrating how these constellations affect inquiry performance. These profiles highlight the importance of tailored guidance and suggest that instructional strategies should align with learners’ cognitive profiles and task demands. The findings clarify inquiry learning’s cognitive underpinnings and inform the design of adaptive inquiry-based environments in physics and beyond.

Developing durable methodological capabilities is a central challenge in doctoral education. This study examined how doctoral students retain conceptual understanding and procedural execution in data visualization following formal instruction. Using a rubric-based assessment with verified inter-rater reliability, performance was evaluated at three time points: immediately after training, six months later, and twelve months later. Linear mixed-effects models captured longitudinal changes while accounting for individual variability. The results revealed significant declines in both dimensions, with sharper decay observed for procedural, tool-dependent execution. These findings suggest that conceptual understanding is relatively more resilient over time, whereas procedural fluency appears to depend more strongly on continued opportunities for practice and feedback. The study indicates that short-term methodological courses alone may be insufficient to ensure enduring competence. More broadly, the findings have implications for how doctoral education might better support the sustained development of data-visualization competence and highlight the need for further research on the learning environments and experiences that shape long-term retention. By linking cognitive theories of learning and forgetting with contemporary doctoral-training frameworks, this research contributes to understanding how methodological capabilities are retained, differentiated, and potentially strengthened through continued scholarly engagement.

As data science advances with the emergence of new computational technologies, science data literacy (SDL)—the ability to understand, use, and critically engage with data to address real-world scientific problems—becomes increasingly vital in science education. However, research on how data practices vary across scientific disciplines and educational levels remains limited, hindering the development of a more cohesive understanding of how SDL can be systematically integrated into diverse educational contexts. This review examines SDL by analyzing 42 peer-reviewed empirical studies (2000–2023) to investigate how students have been engaged in data practices across K–16 science education research. We identify seven core data practices: understanding problems, designing experiments, collecting data, cleaning data, analyzing data, and evaluating and disseminating results, along with their associated facets. Through frequency and association analyses, we observe systematic differences in how these practices are emphasized across disciplines, grade levels, and data types. The reviewed studies suggest that engagement in data practices is associated with both cognitive and non-cognitive learning outcomes. Building on established characterizations of scientific inquiry and problem-solving, along with frameworks such as NGSS and GAISE, we conceptualize SDL as a multifaceted and iterative process, encompassing dimensions from problem identification to data analysis, result synthesis, and dissemination. These dimensions illuminate how scientific knowledge is developed, critiqued, and communicated, which is critical for STEM workforce preparation. Lastly, we identify key challenges evident in the literature and outline directions for future research to support interdisciplinary and sustained approaches to SDL.

Empirical evidence suggests that composite instructional designs implementing a problem-solving phase prior to the instruction phase (PS-I) are more effective than the reverse sequence (I-PS) in promoting conceptual knowledge and transfer. This is particularly true when the instruction phase builds on typical erroneous student solutions from the problem-solving phase, which makes the nature of the instruction phase crucial. Despite claims regarding the high effectiveness of the instruction phase, there is scant literature on this topic. Few studies have explored performance gains when students work individually during the instruction phase to compare erroneous examples—well-crafted, typical erroneous student solutions from the problem-solving phase—with worked examples consisting of step-by-step descriptions of the canonical solution, to detect and explain the errors in the erroneous examples. The current study examined whether (1) scaffolding these troubleshooting activities, (2) requiring students to compare their solutions from the problem-solving phase with worked examples to detect and explain their errors, or (3) scaffolding the self-diagnosis activities in (2) would differentially enhance the efficacy of the instruction phase. Twelve 8th-grade classes (261 students) completed a pretest/intervention/immediate posttest/delayed posttest on simple electric circuits. The intervention consisted of four PS-I sessions targeting different yet-to-be-learned accepted ideas. In the instruction phase of each session, students in each class were randomly assigned to four conditions in a 2 × 2 design, keeping the problem-solving phase identical across conditions. The findings indicated that the troubleshooting activities without scaffolding led to better learning outcomes. The instructional implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Previous research has consistently shown that students have higher learning interests, attitudes, and motivation toward science in elementary school compared to middle and high school. However, the key predictors behind the observed differences in engagement levels across grade levels remain unclear. This study aims to identify the association between students’ perceptions of science instruction and their emotional engagement, as well as to examine the differences across various educational stages. A 2-level organizational multilevel model was employed to investigate this association. In addition, the analysis examined whether the associations varied between grade levels. A sample of 6465 students from 3rd grade to 12th grade from 25 schools participated in the study. This study shows that students in higher grades have significantly lower emotional engagement comparedar to third-grade students. Findings reveal significant associations between students’ perceptions of science instruction, both in perceiving it as interesting and understandable, and their emotional engagement in science learning. There is a greater increase in students’ emotional engagement in a transition year (i.e., sixth grade) when they perceive science class as interesting than in other grades. There were no statistically significant differences between grades in students’ perception of science as understandable and emotional engagement. This study provides evidence of the importance of delivering interesting and well-designed science classes.

The objective of this study was to develop and assess an instructional approach to teaching purposeful reading comprehension strategies to vocational school students. These students specialize for an occupational field, but they often experience difficulties with school tasks that involve reading and using written documents. Grounded in a definition of reading that emphasizes goal-setting and task management, a set of 10 explicit instruction workshops focused on purposeful reading strategies was co-designed with a group of vocational high school teachers from various disciplines. A different group of teachers was then trained by the research team and implemented the workshops in their regular classrooms. The effectiveness of the approach was tested using a quasi-experimental pre-test/training/post-test design involving an experimental group (N = 17 classes and 241 students) and a control group (N = 15 classes and 174 students). The intervention led to improvements on several indicators of purposeful reading proficiency, with pre-post-test comparisons suggesting particularly notable benefits for the students who initially exhibited greater difficulties. We discuss the implications of these findings for theories of reading comprehension, instructional approaches and researcher-teacher collaboration.

Although digital slides (e.g., PowerPoint) have become a prevalent instructional tool in university settings, few studies have evaluated their efficacy by examining distinctions in students’ note-taking habits and working memory capacities. The present study explored how the learning outcomes of undergraduate students differ under varying conditions of slide accessibility (full, none, partial), taking into account their individual differences in note-taking and working memory. To this end, 240 samples were collected from six repeated sessions with 40 undergraduates. Reviewing notes was permitted before conducting tests to assess the external-storage effect. Types of note-taking were categorized into words and markers to measure their quantity: words were further sorted into words related to slides and words extending beyond slide content, while markers were divided into structuring, emphasizing, connecting, and summarizing. Working memory capacity was gauged using operation span and reading span tasks. Results from a mixed effects analysis indicated a significant association between full access to slides and higher recall test scores, whereas partial access was linked to superior scores in the higher-order performance test. The study found that both types of note words were significant predictors of learning success. However, the positive impact of note words was moderated negatively by connecting markers and reading span scores. This research, with its detailed conditions and covariates, sheds light on why previous studies have produced varied outcomes.

This longitudinal study explored the effects of a term-long foreign language reading strategy training on Chinese college EFL (English as a foreign language) students’ use of foreign language reading strategies and reading comprehension performance. The participants were 146 first-year students from a state-owned university in Beijing. Every other week in 16 weeks of the 18-week term, a group of specific foreign language reading strategies with explanations and two reading passages were published in an online classroom platform for the participants to read and practice using the strategies. During the term, the participants were measured for their use of foreign language reading strategy use (FLRSU) and reading comprehension performance at three different time points (i.e., beginning, middle and end of the term). Major findings were: (a) The students had a medium to high FLRSU level at each time point, which significantly increased over time, (b) their English reading comprehension performance decreased from time point 1 to time point 2 and then increased to time point 3, and significant difference occurred between the first two time points and the last two time points, (c) the FLRSU and English reading performance measured at a time point significantly predicted those measured at the following time point respectively, and (d) the FLRSU measured at each time point was significantly correlated with and predicted reading comprehension performance measured at the same time point and at the subsequent time point. These findings clearly demonstrated the significant role of the training in enhancing students’ use of foreign language reading strategies and reading comprehension performance. Based on these findings, the paper discusses key pedagogical implications on how to teach foreign language reading strategies.

Language in educational contexts is characterized by complex and cognitively demanding features that can be challenging to use. Based on situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), we assumed that these linguistic demands can lower students’ expectancies of performing well and the intrinsic value they place on tasks. This is particularly true of students with lower language abilities. Consequently, they may be less motivated to actively engage in academic tasks, potentially leading to lower academic achievement. To test this assumption, we linguistically varied an instructional statistics video into three conditions (easy, moderate, and difficult) and randomly assigned a total of 123 pre-service teachers to each condition. We measured their expectancies of success and intrinsic task value halfway through the instructional video and conducted an achievement test after the instruction. Drawing on path analysis, our results showed that different linguistic conditions had no significant effect on the students’ expectancy-value beliefs. However, we found a significant positive effect of language ability and a significant negative effect of the interaction between the linguistically difficult instruction and language ability on expectancies of success. Contrary to our expectations, this indicates that high linguistic difficulty is associated with lower expectancies of success among students with increasing language abilities. Nevertheless, this finding emphasizes the importance of considering the fit between contextual and individual features. However, it did not have an indirect effect on student achievement. The findings are further discussed, highlighting their implications for future research and delineating linguistic design in educational contexts.

Instructional Science is a prominent international journal of learning sciences. This article provides a comprehensive bibliometric overview of the major trends within the journal from 1972 to 2023. The study focuses on assessing the journal’s impact, identifying the most productive and influential authors, institutions, and countries, as well as analysing the evolution of key topics over time. The primary source of bibliometric data for this analysis is the Scopus scientific database. Some information of the Web of Science Core Collection database is retrieved in specific instances to enhance the analysis. Additionally, the paper includes a graphical mapping of the bibliographic data using VOS viewer software, which provides more in-depth analysis through co-citation, bibliographic coupling, and co-occurrence of author keywords. The findings highlight the journal’s significant growth and impact over the years, and it is anticipated that it will continue to expand its international reach.

Smartphone distraction is a concern in university classrooms. However, the effectiveness of notification salience in reducing the impact of smartphone distraction on learning remains unclear. This study examined how external smartphone stimuli (i.e., notifications) and internal smartphone-related distraction (i.e., smartphone vigilance) influence students’ in-class phone use and learning performance. A quasi-experimental design was used to evaluate 84 Taiwanese undergraduates who were randomly assigned to groups with two different smartphone settings: notification revealed (NR) and notification hidden (NH). Using behavioral observations, self-report measures, and a performance test, we employed t-tests to analyze group differences in phone-use behaviors and learning performance. Partial least-squares structural equation modeling was used to examine the relationships among habitual phone use, smartphone vigilance, phone-use behaviors, mental effort, and learning performance under different smartphone settings. The results revealed that smartphone settings moderated the relationship between vigilance and phone-use patterns: When experiencing heightened smartphone vigilance during learning, students in the NR group exhibited more frequent checking behavior. Those in the NH group, meanwhile, tended toward longer duration per use, referring to extended time spent on each smartphone session. Both use patterns negatively affected learning performance by increasing mental effort, potentially explaining the absence of differences in performance between the groups. This study advances the literature by clarifying the distinct effects of external stimuli and internal distraction, highlighting that merely hiding notifications may be insufficient to prevent distractions in classrooms where smartphones remain accessible. Practical implications of student self-control strategies and classroom smartphone policies have also been discussed.

As video lectures have become an important way for online learning, the learning strategy is one of the important factors that affect the quality of learning. This study investigated the effects of three generative learning strategies (learner-generated explanations, learner-generated drawings, and imagining) on learners’ cognitive load, judgment of learning, learning engagement, learning performance and learning efficiency, compared to the control group.A total of 160 undergraduate students were randomly allocated to one of the four groups (three experimental groups and one control group) and watched the same video lectures about chemistry. Students in the three experimental groups were asked to engage in learning activities tailored to the learning strategy prompts provided in the pause segments of the videos and to complete all measurements. Students in the control group just watched the video without any prompts.Compared with control and imagining, learner-generated explanations and drawings improved engagement, performance, and learning efficiency and showed distinct patterns across intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load. Judgments of learning improved only for learner-generated explanations, whereas imagining showed no reliable benefits.This study provides empirical evidence to the impact of different generative learning strategies on students’ video learning.

The level of practical skills determines whether vocational school students can perform specific jobs competently. Currently, few studies have focused on how to effectively improve vocational students’ practical skill levels. This study examined the effects of blended learning approaches on learners’ practical skill performance, self-regulation ability, interest, and behavior. This study had two objectives: first, to evaluate which learning approach is more effective in enhancing practical skill proficiency among vocational school students; second, to provide an explanatory analysis of students’ learning processes. Employing a 2 (type of operation: virtual simulation vs. hands-on activity) × 2 (video review: without vs. with) between-subject design, 130 participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: virtual simulation alone, virtual simulation with video review, hands-on activity alone, and hands-on activity with video review. Results indicated that blended learning approaches integrating virtual simulations or hands-on activities with video reviews more effectively enhance vocational students’ practical skills performance. Without video review, hands-on activities significantly enhanced vocational students’ practical skills performance more effectively than virtual simulations. The video review intervention enhanced learning performance in both virtual simulations and hands-on activities while eliminating the effectiveness difference between these two learning approaches. Additionally, video review acted as a scaffold that significantly promoted participants’ self-regulated learning and learning interest. Furthermore, behavioral sequence analysis revealed that video review triggered more structured reflective patterns. Vocational schools, particularly those with limited resources, may adopt blended learning approaches to cultivate students’ practical skills, especially using video review as a supplementary tool.

The aim of this study was to explore the interconnections between communicative activities, situational stress reactions, and cognitive engagement in undergraduate mathematics lessons. The multimodal data consisted of video recordings of the lesson and cardiac physiological measurements of students. Whereas situational stress levels sustained higher during individual students’ presentation turns, in-depth moment-by-moment analysis of selected critical incidents showed the co-occurrence of situational stress reactions and specific communicative activities. The results showed that distinct changes in situational stress co-occurred with conflict situations when presenting and communicating mathematical problems. On the other hand, as depicted in both observations of behaviour as well as changes in situational stress, cognitive engagement favouring learning was considered to take place because of peer interaction leading to individual resolving of an incorrect solution. Implications for educational research and mathematics education are discussed.

Facilitating productive scientific inquiry remains a significant challenge in resource-constrained contexts, where systemic barriers, ranging from student cognitive gaps to high teacher orchestration loads, often derail the implementation of inquiry-based pedagogies. While technology-augmented approaches offer potential solutions, the mechanisms by which they function in disadvantaged settings remain underexplored. This quasi-experimental study investigated a context-adapted technology-augmented inquiry approach (TAIA) designed to mitigate these barriers. In a comparative analysis of two secondary classrooms, the experimental group (EG, n = 46) used a digital platform for inquiry scaffolding, while the comparison group (CG, n = 48) engaged in an equivalent worksheet-supported inquiry. Results indicated that TAIA significantly enhanced students’ scientific learning achievements and their perceptions of teacher support. Furthermore, micro-level analysis of classroom practice revealed that the platform’s real-time visibility afforded the teacher a shift from reactive, content-focused correction to proactive, inquiry-related coaching tailored to students’ emerging needs. These findings suggest that technology engineered to provide pedagogical visibility, simultaneously scaffolding student inquiry and alleviating teacher orchestration load, can help transform teaching practices and democratize access to high-quality science education.

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is a cyclical process essential for activating independent learners. Because SRL does not develop spontaneously, teachers need to learn about and experience its components and effective practices to stimulate students’ SRL. To support teachers in SRL practice implementation, we propose a unique professional development model that combines direct and indirect instruction of SRL. The model is based on Authentic, Interactive, and Dynamic Experiences in SRL context (SRL-AIDE), and involves live-actor simulations, where participants are highly engaged and immersed in the experience.The study aims to shed light on the relationships and characteristics of practices that promote SRL directly by metacognitive strategic support (MCS), and indirectly by activating students’ independent learning with knowledge construction (KC). This is a quantitative study with a quasi-experimental design. Two teachers’ intervention groups with a pre/post design (N = 70) were compared: an experimental group exposed to the SRL-AIDE model focused on MCS vs. a comparison group exposed to a practice program focused on KC. The study examined in-class SRL practice implementation of two measures: explicitness level and duration in the lesson, and investigated the relations between the MCS and KC practices using real-time in-class measurement methods. Differences emerged between the groups in the MCS and KC practices by time. The experimental group showed greater gains in both practices. This study contributes to the field by providing quantitative evidence on the relationships between MCS and KC practices, which were previously described as supportive mainly in qualitative studies, offering new insights into how these practices work together to support SRL development. Implications for teacher education and future studies are discussed.